Speedo Marketing Stratergy

SPEEDO INDEX Sr. No| Topic| Pg. no| 1. | Marketing Objectives| 1. | 1. 2| Ansoff Matrix| 1. | 1. 3| Unique Selling Proposition| 3. | 1. 4| Point of Difference| 4. | 1. 5| Point of Parity| 4. | | | | 2. | Marketing Program| 5. | 2. 1| Product| 5. | 2. 1. 1| Lines to be introduced| 5. | 2. 1. 4| Quality| 11. | 2. 1. 5| Packaging| 12. | 2. 2| Promotion Strategies:| 14. | 2. 2. 1| Online and Print Media Promotion | 14. | 2. 2. 1 | Outdoor Promotion| 16| 2. 2. 2| Digital Media Marketing| 17. | 2. 2. 3| PR Activities| 18. | 2. 3| Price| 19. 2. 3. 1| Pricing Strategy | 19. | 2. 3. 2| Price Range| 19. | 2. 4| Place| 20. | 2. 4. 1| * Store Setup| * Facilities| Store Display| Store USP| | Location| 20. | 3. | Financial Budgeting| 23. | | | | Marketing Objectives The Ansoff Model: Existing Market – Product Expansion Speedo Ltd. is a manufacturer and distributor of swimwear. Speedo brand can be found on products ranging from swimsuits and goggles to wrist watches and MP3 players is establ ished in the swimwear market as one of the leading brands of the world.Being in this industry since decades now, Speedo has a very high brand value and is consistently rated as one of the top 100 brands in the world every year. In today’s world technology is being updated by every second and hence a company needs to keep itself in tune with the technology and happenings of the world and strategize accordingly. Hence Speedo uses the PRODUCT EXPANSION strategy which means that it has an existing market but has to expand its operations and product range and diversity as time progresses.Indian Market – Market Penetration Speedo may be very popular amongst consumers in India but it is still a new company in the market as a whole keeping in mind the Indian swimwear market. This is the reason why the market penetration is recommended in this market. According to the Ansoff model this strategy is used when a company is well established but enters a new market in which it is st ill young and needs to penetrate in the market in keeping with new marketing strategies and existing market situation. Unique Selling PropositionWhenever one utters the world swimwear, the first brand that comes to mind; is Speedo such is the phenomenal fan following of this brand. Whenever there is a Speedo swimwearon television, men and women the world over, tune in to catch the latest trends in. The plus points of a big swimwear brand like Speedo are proportionate pricing, a mind boggling range of sizes, including extra large sizes for overweight women and cup A sizes for beginners, opulent and mind numbing designs coupled with fantastic fits. The USP of Speedo is the: mix of goodlooking swimwear and practicality, which makes it possible to think of everyday wear as well.Point of Difference: * Fun, Comfortable, Athletic Speedo will be one of the very few swimwear brands in India with that Brand Image. Products sold at Speedo are diverse (from swimwear to body care and accessories ) are Vibrant and well packaged, unlike its competitors. Point of Parity: * There are a few elements that Speedo would wish to borrow from it’s competitors to incorporate into it’s business model: * Attention to comfort * Introduce body shaping Products * Concentrate on store interiors and display. Marketing Program ProductSpeedo India will have a varied range of products on offer; these consist of in addition to the swimear which is there in various sectors in India: * Swimsuits men/Women (Racing,Training,Triathelite,Competitive Equiqment,Fina approved suits, Swim Fitness) * Trunks * Fitness Range/Body care(Health and Well Being, Speedo sculpture,Accessories,Aqua Active, Play and fun) * Accessories * Speedo Digital (Aqua beat MP3 player, Aqua Coach) All Speedo products are benchmarks in terms of design, functionality, sustainability and comfort above all.As Speedo is opening up just its first store in India the product range will be limited to 3 world-renowned collect ions. Lines to be introduced: Right Fit SMOOTHER. SEXIER. BETTER THAN EVER Curves Description: Stretch-to-fit conforms perfectly to your body so all you see is curves; This swimwear fabrics are selected with quality, innovation, technology and creative freedom in mind, to ensure we provide only the best selection for our customers. Our fantastic range of swimwear is for both girls and guys. With a large assortment of fabric colours and prints, you’re sure to find more than one to choose from.Immerse yourself in our wide variety of fashionable designer swimwear, from one-piece bathing suits to bikinis, and coordinating accessories. 2012 is awash in a wide palette of colors, textures and prints in our women’s swimsuits as well as in our men’s swimwear. At Swimwear Boutique, we carry high fashion designers who offer complementing accessories. We also provide bathing suits that are appealing to a wide variety of interests, proportions, and ages. Our collection inclu des one-piece swimwear, bikinis, two-piece swimsuits, and coordinating bathing apparel for women, juniors, and misses.Explore our designer swimwear silhouettes and create your fashion forward wardrobe and embellish your favorite women's swimwear or junior swimwear with a sarong, shirt, pant, and other swimwear accessories. Features: * Weightless * Maximum nipple * Nylon ; Spandex/Lycra * Adjustable straps * Underwired cups if needed * Front closure Sizes available: Xtra small,small,medium,Large,Xlarge – 40 DD Colors available: Featured Products: * Swimwear women * One piece/Two piece 1. GLAMOUR BY SPEEDO THE GLIMMEROUS TOUCH OF GLAMOUR. Description:The glitter with a combination of laced edges and self-embroidery gives you a classy touch adding glamour to your swimwear. The label is aimed at sophisticated women of all ages who demand high-quality and high-fashion in equal measures. The collection hits a fabulous note that is sexy, and also flattering and comfortable. Glamorou s not only features stunning contemporary design, the range also offers subtle support and control which gives our clients the body confidence to enjoy their new swimwear on all occasions – whether basking in the sun poolside, on a yacht, or at a resort bar as the sun sets.The inaugural collection features fashion-forward colours, and a beautiful variety of one-piece maillot swimsuits, and mix ; match bikini separates. Features: * Underwire * Heavy look with a comfortable feel * Sexy shapes Sizes available: Small, Medium, Large. Colors available: pastel shades and solid colors with multi-colored lacing and embroidery Featured products: * Swimwear sets 3. Speedos tie up with designer brands Description: At Speedo we plan to tie up with a designer and provide our clients with exclusive swimwear No matter what your preference, you'll find a swimsuit at Swimwear Boutique. com.Our suits will capture the essence of your femininity and accentuate your best features. e represent the most unique styles and highest quality products available. Molly Brown's is approached by hundreds of designers each year to retail their lines in our store. Our buyers select only a limited number of the world's best, not fifty or a hundred like other swimwear retailers. Most of the designers we carry use only the most luxurious imported fabrics and custom hardware. Specialty swimwear has become main stream in high fashion and designers have enhanced their lines by producing beautiful dresses and resort wear.Molly Brown's has expanded its offerings to feature these specialty lines. We are privileged to have many of our designers produce exclusive pieces which are only available at Molly Brown's. Due to our strict privacy policy, many professionals, celebrities and their representatives are clients of Molly Brown's. A large percentage of the designer swimwear that is photographed on celebrities is sold in our store. Molly Brown's client list includes hollywood's a list, Fortune 500 professionals and fashion forward women that want the seasons' hottest trends. Molly Brown's has been featured on MTV, E! major news networks and in countless fashion publications. we are actively involved in celebrity photo shoots, high profile events and fashion shows. Each year we are asked by the media to comment on the upcoming season's hottest styles and trends. The vibrant atmosphere of the Molly Brown's store and beautiful window displays are a draw for designer interviews and news coverage. Please see our current press, video links and featured in publications. Shopping for swimwear can be difficult. For this reason, Molly Brown's client services and knowledgeable staff are unsurpassed in the industry.Ensuring our clients receive the exact style and fit they desire, both in store and online, is key to our success. Due to our outstanding personal and professional services, most first time buyers become long term clients of Molly Brown's. Features: * Reversible * With gel cur ve * Extreme plunge push-up * Various color ; print combinations * Unique border shapes * Extreme comfort with seam free, label free ; stitch free technology Sizes: Available in all sizes Featured products: Swimwear for men and Women Featured Designers SHIVAN ; NARRESH’These designers werelaunched in Cannes at ‘Mare di Moda’ with their 100% stitch free line called Insectoid. ‘SHIVAN ; NARRESH’ has a unique signature style that is bold, confident ;   sophisticated. Flawless lines, undisputed eye for detail and utter sophistication are words that could be used to define the brand. After the launch in Cannes, the duo shifted their studio to India, and became India’s first mainstream beachwear designers doing 100% handcrafted stitch-free swimwear and ready to wear made all in 100% Italian swimwear fabrics and complementing  resort wear.Currently based out of New Delhi, SHIVAN Bhatiya mastered the art of leather corsetry and accessories for fou r years from National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi, learning the functions and craftsmanship of leather in women’s wear lingerie. While NARRESH Kukreja specialized in women’s wear for four years in Fashion ; Textiles. Subsequent to their graduation, they worked in the fashion Industry for a year before being awarded  scholarships  to complete their Masters in Milan ; Rome at the Istituto Europeo di Design in ‘Fashion ; Textiles’ ; ‘Luxury Marketing’ respectively.SHIVAN ; NARRESH are recipients of several awards in recognition of their design ; creativity. The duo were discovered in 2006 by MITTELMODA, the oldest Italian talent search organization, based in Gorizia, Italy through  Mittelmoda International Beachwear Awards  in Bali. They are  winners of the  World of Wearable Art Awards, Wellington, New Zealand(‘06),  the  SWAROVSKI Most Creative Designer of the Year  (‘07) at the NIFT Graduation;    Debutant Designer of the Year(‘07) at India Fashion Week. 4.Exclusive Customisation Custom Made Swimwear manufactures all of its swimwear Let us take the frustration out of buying a swimsuit and help you find the perfect fit. We offer styles for every shape and size, specializing in large cup sizes, plus sizes, full figure and hard-to-fit swimwear. You can purchase your bathing suit by size, from 0 – 32 and bra size AA to K cup. Also, a customized specialty suit can be hand cut and sewn for your needs. Specializes in giving women of all ages what they want and need in swimwear.We can assist in fitting women who are hard to fit, have health issues, are struggling with weight, mastectomy or the woman who simply wants to create a uniquely custom swimsuit. You choose your style, size and fabric as well as numerous options making it possible for you to get the look you deserve. Each order is reviewed by an experienced consultant to confirm sizing accuracy and to make the ne cessary alterations to get the best possible fit. You will walk away feeling confident and self-assured that you can look great in a swimsuit! Quality Considering the price one pays, Speedo quality is excellent.Speedos Swimwear made of the cotton/spandex/ lycramaterial tends to retain its stretchiness with time; however, the color doesn’t fade quickly. Most of the swimwear have excellent quality that does not dwindle with time in any respect- the material retains its color and texture over time. Accessories and tops made  out of  100% lasting, however the ones with certain percentage of spandex in them last longer. Size Chart Packaging†¦ The following actions have taken place so far within the framework of this plan: They have minimized the thickness of the boxes down to the technical limit that prevents breakage and crushing.They have also minimized the individual packages for garments and accessories in terms of dimensions and density, while retaining their capacit y to avoid breakage and to be processed by the distribution machinery. They have minimized the size of the labels, to just the size that allows them to be read correct. It is worth noting that all internal shipments are made using reused boxes. It is also worth pointing out that all the boxes used are made with 100% recycled material. To facilitate recycling, all these are paper-based, eliminating any metallic elements (staples, etc. Finally, Speedo adheres to the waste and packaging management systems established in the different countries in which they operate. Promotion Online ; Print Promotion: * Speedo plans to strategically use social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, etc. to promote itself, since it aims to capture the attention of the digitally advanced and internet friendly marked. * A special page will be created on Facebook for Speedo India, which will provide regular updates on changes, and additions to inventory, notify customers about upcoming sales and offers.U sers can also place queries regarding their orders, which will be answered and assisted by the customer care executives. * Twitter posts regarding Speedo. com will be regularly updated, Consumers who wish to learn more about the website and what it has to offer can follow these posts for information. * Advertisements will be given in issues of popular fashion magazine like Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar, L’officiel, etc. which are read by the market Victoria’s Secret aims to target. * Advertisements will also be put in the Bombay Times, since; it is a newspaper that is common among all age groups.Advertisements will be carried out for the first 3 months. * Speedo will launch and Indian website and the web domain will also be submitted to popular search engines like Google, Yahoo, etc. In this way users looking for information on Speedo India will be guided to a link to the website. * Popular news articles online and on print from Times, Business India, etc notifying the market about Speedo Brick and Mortar and online store will also promote the website and create awareness. * End of season sales will be notified through Magazines, Newspapers, social networking sites, etc. Sign up Members for Email newsletters and mobile updates outdoor Promotion: * Billboard advertisements to promote the establishment of Speedo new store will be seen for 3 months since it’s operation outside its stores and prime shopping locations. * In-store collaterals will notify customers shopping at the store about Speedo online presence. Billboard advertisements Digital Media Marketing: 1. Speedo for IPad and IPhone Description: It’s the destination for all things Speedo—anywhere, anytime, on-the-go, at your fingertips. Effortlessly flip through and buy from o current catalogues, shop www. peedo. com with just a tap, and find the nearest Speedo stores. One will also find up-to-the-minute coverage of the favorite swimwear from photo shoots to star-studded store openings, fashion show exclusives, TV commercials, special event,etc. * PAD ® IS CATALOGUE IN THE WORLD ?The catalogues come alive on iPad ® letting one simply swipe the screen to flip from page to page. Just tap the image and it will take one directly to that item on the website. Add it to the shopping bag and check out. It's easy, fast and can be done wherever. * ? FIND THE NEAREST VS STOREThe store locator finds a Speedo store near the user and provides directions, store hours and contact information. * SHARE WITH FRIENDS Post VS pictures, videos and stories directly to one’s favorite social networking sites or share via email.? Television & P. R. * A week prior to its launch, Speedo in association with a fitness program will telecast the Victoria’s Secret 2012 during Prime Time. * Victoria’s Secret launch party. * Location – Hype, Mumbai. * Guests– Athletes,Socialites, celebrities, leading models, designers and corporate wives from all over Mumbai. Schedule – The event starts at 21:00 hrs. followed by the introduction speech by CEO Speedo and Store Manager for Speedo Mumbai followed by dinner and drinks. The event duration is 3 hours since it is to take place in a club and be full of events. Guests will leave with gift packs from Speedo * Why the launch party? Any message conveyed by means of recreational activities and entertainment is always heard louder than a mediocre public event. The pompous nature, glamour, exclusivity and Posh appeal of a launch party is automatically well publicized due to the presence of high level guests and celebrities.Price The above table represents the average pricing of the various types of products to be carried under each product line. This was calculated keeping in mind various factors such as: * International pricing strategy * Taxes * Operating expenses * Fixed costs * Appeal of the particular product * Marketing expenses * Target consumer Place Location The new Sp eedois planned to be launched in Palladium Mall, Lower Parel. The mall is ideally located in Central Mumbai. Palladium is apt owing to its host of brands it has and the customer’s it attracts.Store Interiors The interiors of the store will be designed similar to that of Speedostores across the world. Merchandise will be arranged in neat stacks according to size and color. Store Display GANTT Chart A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Some Gantt charts also show the dependency (i. e. precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical â€Å"TODAY† line as shown here. Although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gantt cha rts were considered revolutionary when they were introduced. In recognition of Henry Gantt's contributions, the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal is awarded for distinguished achievement in management and in community service. This chart is used also in Information Technology to represent data that has been collected.In the following report 2 Gantt Charts, Both representing Zara India On line’s planned schedule for Web Development and Promotions is created. Financial Budgeting Introduction It's essential to plan and tightly manage one’s business' financial performance. Creating a budgeting process is the most effective way to keep the business – and its finances – on track. Successful businesses invest time to create and manage budgets, prepare and review business plans and regularly monitor finance and performance. Structured planning makes all the difference to the growth of the business.It also enables one to concentrate his/her resources on improving profits , reducing costs and increasing returns on investment. In fact, even without a formal process, many businesses carry out the majority of the activities associated with business planning, such as considering growth areas, competitors, cash flow and profit. Converting this into a cohesive process to manage the businesses will keep the company dynamic communicated to it’s clients and workers more effectively. The main aim of the business plan is to set out the strategy and action plan for the business.This also includes a clear financial picture of where the company stands – and expects to stand – over the coming years. In the previous report Analysis had been conducted with respect to Market environment, Consumer profile, etc. On the basis of the results of the analysis and Web Development strategy was proposed. The following report consists of a detailed Financial Plan complete with figures and estimates required to implement the earlier proposed web development plan. Start Up Expenses Income ; Expense Statements

Dark Matter: a Basic Understanding

Dark Matter: A Basic Understanding Introduction Many people, from the inquisitive, to those involved in the astronomical sciences have questioned the existence of Dark Matter. While it is called many things today, I will continue to refer to this unseen substance by its original name, Dark Matter. As it is still a theory being researched today to validate its existence and make-up, the discovery of dark matter was first presented to the world some time ago by two very intelligent astronomers. In coming to understand this matter, some of the most common questions we find ourselves asking are: What is it?And, How was it discovered? The most difficult question we all seem to face is â€Å"Does it really exist? † While quite tricky, this question is one that each of us have to conclude an answer to on our own. Therefore to start, I will address the more common questions first, and then I will provide my own answer to the question of its existence. Dark Matter: What is it? When fir st being introduced to Dark Matter, the first question we find ourselves asking is what is it? In and out of the scientific community dark matter is commonly referred to as â€Å"the source of extra gravity,† or the â€Å"mysterious form of matter that is unseen. A more refined scientific definition for dark matter is â€Å"a nonluminous, undetectable, invisible material in the universe that makes up about 70%-80% of its mass. † In short, dark matter is an unseen form of material that contains its own gravity which affects its surrounding materials; i. e. gases, stellar, and celestial bodies. With truly dedicated astronomers and cosmologists focused on the structure and composition of the cosmos, this brings me to explaining how this invisible matter called â€Å"dark matter† was discovered. Dark Matter: How Was It Discovered?In 1932 and 1933, astronomers Jan Hendrick Oort and Fritz Zwicky were the first to postulate the idea of the existence of dark matter. In studying the stellar motions of stars within the galactic plane of the Milky Way galaxy, Astronomer Jan Oort observed that the rotational velocity of stars on this outermost part of the galaxy (galactic plane) was actually increasing versus decreasing. This in itself presented a reason to question this stellar movement further since, based on Newton’s law of gravity, the rotational velocity of stars should steadily decrease the further they are from the galactic center.Oort continued his observations on stellar motions, while astronomer Fritz Zwicky carried out his studies and observations on galactic clusters and how they remained gravitationally bound. During Zwicky’s observations, here is where dark matter was discovered on a much more massive scale. Through Zwicky’s research, he found that there needed to be 10 times as much mass as observed in the form of visible light in order to keep galaxies clustered together. This observation was clear to Zwicky, as i t had been to Oort, that there was a large sum of mass existing within the cosmos that was simply â€Å"non-visible. At this point, astronomers simply referred to this material as â€Å"missing mass. † Being that the peculiar stellar movement counters Newton’s law of gravity, and occurs in the outermost part of the galaxy known as â€Å"galaxy halo’s,† both Oort and Zwicky hypothesized that this â€Å"dark matter† must exist in a spherical form that enshrouds the outermost part of galaxies, thus keeping them from flying apart. In understanding how this matter was discovered, this brings me to the final and most important question, and that is determining if it really exists.Dark Matter: Does It Really Exist? The evidence supporting the existence of dark matter today is very convincing, yet in the scientific community, it is still a theory. Giving a definite answer as to whether it exists is solely up to the individual. Despite this, astronomers ar e continuing to find more convincing information that supports the dark matter theory. For instance, an August 2012 article published in â€Å"Science News Today,† discussed evidence of dark matter filaments (fibers or threads of dark matter) discovered by astronomer Jorg Dietrich and his colleagues.Dietrich and his colleague’s x-ray observations of a pair galaxy clusters called Abell 222/223, revealed a ribbon of hot gas between the clusters. This, along with the galaxies distorted shapes and how light was bent was the first hint of the presence of dark matter. Continued observation of the galaxy clusters revealed a thick cord of invisible matter with a mass comparable to that of a small galaxy cluster. Dietrich states that gas can account for only about 9 percent of that mass, dark matter appears to make up the rest. Conclusion:In understanding that dark matter is an unseen material which contains its own gravity, the theory alone provides a unique way of understandi ng the structure of our universe. Most importantly, the work of astronomer’s Jan Oort and Fran Zwicky set the stage for astronomers to seek out and understand possible unseen forces at work within our cosmos. This is exactly what astronomer J. Deitrich and his colleague’s did. While there is a host of significant evidence supporting the theory of dark matter, Deitrich and his colleague’s evidence was eye-opening.In concluding if it actually exists, in my opinion its presence is already confirmed. Works Cited Jones, Andrew, and Daniel Robbins. â€Å"The Universe’s Dark Matter and Dark Energy, String theory for dummies. † Dummies. com. Dummies. biz. 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2012. NASA. What is Dark Matter? Washington: Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 23 Feb. 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2012. Powell, Devin. â€Å"Dark Matter Filament Illuminated. † Science News Magazine 11 Aug. 2012: 9+. Print. White, Mark. â€Å"Rotation Curves. † Berkel ey Astronomy Department. University of California at Berkeley. 2011. Web. 15 Nov. 2012.

Research Paper on Human Behavior Organization

[pic] Organizational Behavior against Perception In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement of the Subject HBO101 Submitted to: Ms. Pichay Submitted by: Leader: Marino, Lizaso Member: Lindero, Maricar Lustina, Irene Macaraeg, Maan Macarambon, Putri Johanna HBO101-1T ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are heartily thankful to our dearest professor, Mrs. Pichay whose encouragement, support and guidance until the wavering moments of the semester helped us to see this term paper into completion.We are also particularly grateful for the assistance given by the staff of UE Library specifically the Circulation Library and Graduate School Library for letting us borrow books and theses. We would like to offer our special thanks to the National Library for providing us the resources needed for this study. We would also like to thank our respective families and friends for their understanding and for allowing us to spend most of our precious time working with our research paper. Above all, we glorify and thank Almighty God/ Allah, who have given us the power to believe in ourselves and pursue our dreams.We could never have done this without the faith we have in him. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Title Pagei Acknowledgementii Table of Contentsiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION A. History and Background B. Significance of the Study C. Objectives of the Study D. Scope and Delimitations E. Definition of Terms 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 3SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY REFLECTION PAPER Chapter I Introduction A. History and Background Although human relationships have existed since the beginning of time, the art and science of trying to deal with them in complex organizations is relatively new.In the early days people work along or in such small groups that their work relationships were easily handled. It has been popular to assume that under this conditions people worked in a Utopia of happiness and fulfillment, but this assumption is largely a nostalgic reinterpretation of history actual conditions were brutal and backbreaking. People worked from dawn until dust under intolerable conditions of disease, filth, danger, and scarcity of resources. They had to work this way to survive, and very little effort was devoted to their job satisfaction.Then came the industrial revolution in the beginning the condition of the people did improve, but at least the seed was planted for potential improvement industry expanded the supply of goods and knowledge that eventually gave workers increased wages, shorter hours, and more satisfaction in this new industrial improvement Robert Owen, a young Welsh factory owner about the year 1800, was one of the first to emphasize the human needs of employees. He refused to employ young children. He taught his workers cleanliness and temperance improved their working conditions.This could hardly be called a modern organizational behavior, but it was a beginning. He was called â€Å"the real father† of personnel administration by an early writer. A ndrew Ure incorporated human factors into his work The Philosophy of Manufactures, published in 1835. He recognized the mechanical and commercial parts of manufacturing, but he also added a third factor, which was the human factor. He provided workers with hot tea, medical treatment, â€Å"a fan apparatus† for ventilation, and sickness payments.The ideas of Owen and Ure were accepted slowly or not at all, and they often deteriorated into a paternalistic, do-good approach rather than a genuine recognition of the importance of people at work. Interest in people at work was awakened by Frederick W. Taylor in the United States in the early 1900s. He is often called â€Å"the father of scientific management,† and the changes he brought to management paved the way for later development of organizational behavior. His work eventually led to improved recognition and productivity for industrial workers.He pointed out that just as there was a best machine for a job, so were ther e best ways for people to do their jobs. To be sure, the goal was still technical efficiency, but at least management was awakened to the importance of one of its neglected resources. Taylor’s major work was published in 1911. it was followed in 1914 by Lillian Gilbreth’s The Psychology of Management, which primarily emphasized the human side of work. Shortly thereafter the National Personnel Association was formed, and later.In 1923, it became the American Management Association, carrying the subtitle â€Å"Devoted Exclusively to the Consideration of the Human Factor in Commerce and Industry. † During this period Whiting Williams was studying workers while working with them, and in 1920 he published a significant interpretation of his experiences, What’s on the Worker’s Mind. Organizations permeate all levels of our lives. We come into contact with many of them daily. In fact, most of us probably spend most of our lives in—or are affected b y—organizations.We expend sizable amounts of our time as members of work, school, social, civic, and church organizations. Or we are involved as employees, students, clients, patients, and citizens of organizations. Organizations are characterized by their goal-directed behavior, and they pursue goals and objectives that can be achieved more efficiently and effectively by the concerted action of individuals and groups. Organizations are, however, much more than means for providing goods and services. They create the settings in which most of us spend our lives.In this respect, they have profound influence on our behavior. However, because large-scale organizations have developed only in recent times, we are just now beginning to recognize the necessity for studying them. Organizations have always been regarded as integral to the social world. They have become pervasive and as social units they impinge upon the behavior of their members and the members of society. They are sig nificant since they allow individual members to achieve their personal goals and to channel their energies for the welfare of society.The modern study of what people do within organizations was developed in the mid to late 1940s. the behavioral sciences—psychology, sociology, and cultural anthropology—have provided the principles, scientific rigor, and models for what we refer to today as organizational behavior. Modern society depends on organizations for its survival. Organizations exist through components technology and people. Society must understand organizations and use them to achieve the goals of its human components—the people. Each organization can work effectively with people if the management considers them in human terms.The organizational behavior of the manager affects the people, the structure, the technology, and the environment in which the organization operates. People are the chief components of an organization. They make up the internal soci al system of the organization. They are living, thinking, feeling beings of the organization. Organizations exist to serve people and society as a whole. Organizations operate in an external environment. Individual organizations such as schools and agencies are influenced by the external environment.The environment influences the attitudes, behavior and performance of the people, their working conditions and life styles. According to Davis (1993), the climate of each organization is achieved through an organizational system. In a working social system, people bring together both individual and group ways when they enter an organization. They bring their philosophy and goals, their psychological, social and economic wants which they express in their behavior. For Osborn (1991), he expressed that managers are the hearts of organizations.Organizational behavior is a knowledge base that enables managers to help their organizations perform better. Organizations relay on both human and ph ysical resources for their continued functioning. To combine successfully the two types of resource inputs into product or service outputs, managers must understand organization as work settings. Osborn also stated that the manager heads a work unit which links subordinates with the total organization through means and chains. The manager is also responsible in making the work unit functions as an organization in and of itself. The esults sought by the managers are task performance and human resource maintain at the individual, group, and organizational levels. He stressed further that manager share a common challenge. On the one hand, they are held accountable by superiors for work until performance. On the other hand, they are largely dependent upon their subordinates to do the required work. Organizational behavior Organizational behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people—as individuals and groups—act within organizations. It strives to iden tify ways in which people can act more effectively.Organizational behavior (O. B) is a scientific discipline in which a large number of research studies and conceptual developments are constantly adding to its knowledge base. It is also an applied science, in that information about effective practices in one organization are being extended to many others. Organizational behavior provides a useful set of tools at many levels of analysis. For example, it helps managers look at the behavior of individuals within an organization. It also aids their understanding of the complexities involved in interpersonal relations, when two people interact.At the next level, organizational behavior is valuable for examining the dynamics of relationships within small groups, both formal teams and informal groups. When two or more groups need to coordinate their efforts, such as engineering and sales, managers become interested in the inter-group relations that emerge. Finally, organizations can also b e viewed, and managed, as whole systems that behave inter-organizational relationships. There are four primary goals in organizational behavior. The first is to describe, systematically, how people behave under a variety of conditions.Achieving this goal allows managers to communicate about human behavior at work using a common language. A second goal is to understand why people behave as they do. Managers would be highly frustrated if they could only talk about behaviors of their employees, but not understand the reasons behind those actions. Predicting future employee behavior is another goal of organizational behavior. Ideally, managers would have the capacity to predict which employees might be dedicated and productive or which might be absent, tardy, or disruptive on a certain day.This would allow them to take preventive actions. The final goal of organizational behavior is to control and develop some human activity at work. Since managers are held responsible for the performan ce outcomes, they are vitally interested in being able to make an impact on employee behavior, skill development, team effort, and productivity. Managers need to remember that organizational behavior is a human tool for human benefit. The key elements in organizational behavior are people, structure, technology and the environment in which the organization operates.When people join together in an organization to accomplish an objective, some king of structure is required. People also use technology to help to get the job done, so there is an interaction of people, structure, and technology PEOPLEPeople make up the internal social system of the organization. They consist of individuals and groups, and large groups as well as small ones. There are unofficial, informal groups and more official, formal ones. Groups are dynamic. They form, change, and disband. The human organization today is not the same as it was yesterday, or the day before.People are the living, thinking, feeling bein gs who work in the organization to achieve their objectives. STRUCTUREStructure defines the formal relationship of people in organizations. Different jobs are required to accomplish all of an organization’s activities. There are managers and employees, accountants and assemblers. These people have to be related in some structural way so that their work can be effectively coordinated. These relationships create complex problems of cooperation, negotiation, and decision making. TECHNOLOGYTechnology provides the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform.They cannot accomplish much with their bare hands, so they build buildings, design machines, create work processes, and assemble resources. The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. An assembly line is not the same as a research laboratory, and a steel mill does not have the same working conditions as a hospital. The great benefit of technology is that it allows peopl e to do more and better work, but it also restricts people in various ways. ENVIRONMENTAll organizations operate within an internal and an external environment.A single organization does not exist alone. It is part of a larger system that contains many other elements, such as government, the family, and other organizations. All of this mutually influenced one another in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people. Individual organizations, such as factory or a school, cannot escape being influenced by this external environment. It influences the attitudes of people, affects working conditions, and provides competition for resources and power. Organizational behavior follows principles of human behavior.The effectiveness of any organization is influenced greatly by human behavior. People are a resource common to all organizations. There is no such thing as a peopleless organization. One important principle of psychology is that each person is different. Each person has unique perceptions, personalities, and life experiences; different capabilities for learning and stress; and different attitudes, beliefs, and aspiration levels. To be effective, managers of organizations must view each employee or member as a unique embodiment of all these behavioral factors.Organizational behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people—as individuals and groups—act in organizations. Its goals are to make managers more effective at describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior. Key elements to consider are people, structure, technology and the external environment. Previously known as human relations, organizational behavior has emerged as interdisciplinary field of value to managers. It builds on an increasingly solid research foundation that was begun in the 1920s, and it draws upon useful ideas and conceptual models from many of the behavioral science.Organization needs a well-managed structural mecha nism in assessing work force performance in correlation to work performance and productivity of workers. Performance appraisal is a measurement conducted on workers to evaluate how they achieve work targets and productivity (Najib, 2007). Various factors can be regarded in applying performance appraisal. Some researchers state that performance appraisal can be viewed from various aspects relating to the aims of research or what is going to be analyzed. Some evaluate working activity aspect, while others evaluate behaviour or personality aspect.Work performance, according to D. Grote (2002), V. M. Rivai and A. F. Basri (2005), and L. M. Robert and H. J. John (2006), is stated as behavior and work result that should be made as priority. They believe that behavior aspect is input or how individual conduct his/her duties which can be measured by knowledge, skill, attitude, and habit variables. Work result aspect, on the other hand, is output or what is going to achieve from a job which can be measured by quantity, quality, and timeliness variables. The approach of both appraisal aspects is used in this research i. . (1) behavior aspect and work result aspect, and (2) their contribution to performance. B. Significance of the Study Having become one of the most prevalent debates in recent years, organizational related studies have became a major topic of study nowadays. Organizations as defined as † a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. †    So we can see that individuals, walking under the flag of organization are valuable resources to the firm.It is totally impossible to find an organization without any manpower. So, as long as organizations are consisted of individuals, it is very important to know and learn about these fundamental elements of the firms. And that is the reason the concept of organizational behavior is a major fie ld of study these days. Organizational behavior is defined as † a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness.    Or in other words, it is â€Å"the study of what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations. †    And because the nature of human being is a sophisticated, multidimensional phenomenon, wide ranges of disciplines are required. Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics and industrial engineering are the traditional disciplines and communications, information system, marketing and women's studies are the emerging disciplines toward studying organizational behavior. The purpose of the study is to draw optimum performance from all the employees.In today’s world, the environment of business is changing constantly. As a result, the manager has to play increasingly important role. With recent increase in workload, responsibilities and diversities, the importance of managers in a working environment has also increased. In order to help managers and supervisors learn more about the complexity of the new workforce many different studies have been developed. One area of study that has increased in importance over the years is the study of Organizational Behavior.This paper first defines exactly what organizational behavior is and discusses its importance. C. Objectives of the Study This research is to analyze the influence of work behaviour towards work performance. Variables for behaviour are knowledge, skill, attitude, and habits. Situational assessments of work performance can be used repeatedly to measure progress in work rehabilitation and used for feedback and goal setting. The organizations in which people work have an effect on their thoughts, feelings and actions.These thoughts, feelings and actions in turn affect the organi zation itself. By this research, can also understand the workers or employees behave the way they do and also thereby predict how they are going to behave in the future. Performance objectives also play a major role in defining the results expected through your staff's hard work and dedication. It’s necessity in setting clear goals for employees. They also challenge staff members to achieve maximum results to promote business growth and make continuous improvements to meet the challenges and changing demands of the marketplace.It must be clear and guide action. D. Scope and Delimitation This research covers about work performance and behaviour of an employee. The limitations of this research are to those people who are currently working. Only workers can participate in this research. E. Definition of Terms The following terms used in this study are defined operationally. Organizational behaviour  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ is the application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and gr oups act in organizations, in order to achieve the highest performance and dominant results.Attitude  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ the degree to which the person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question. Knowledge-  remembering of previously learned material; recall (facts or whole theories); bringing to mind. Analysis-  breaking down into parts; understanding organization, clarifying, concluding Work behaviour  -is the  behaviour  one uses in  employment  and is normally more formal than other types of  human behaviour. Job performance  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ is a commonly used, yet poorly defined concept in  industrial and organizational psychology, it most commonly refers to whether a person performs their  job  well.Performance- the act of performing; the carrying into execution or action; execution; achievement; accomplishment; representation by action; as, the performance of an undertaking of a duty. Behaviour- can be regarded as any action of an organi sm that changes its relationship to its environment. Behaviour provides outputs from the organism to the environment. Chapter II Related Literatures In the 1920s and 1930s Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger at Harvard University gave academic stature to the study of human behavior at work.They applied keen insight, straight thinking, and sociological backgrounds to industrial experiments at the Western Electric Company, Hawthorne Plant. They concluded that an organization is a social system and the worker is indeed the most important element in it. Their experiments showed that the worker is not a simple tool but a complex personality interacting in a group situation that often is difficult to understand. To Taylor and his contemporaries, human problems stood in the way of production and so should be minimized. To Mayo, human problems became a broad new field of study and an opportunity for progress.He is recognized as the father of what was then called human relations and later be came known as organizational behavior. Taylor increased production by rationalizing it. Mayo and his followers sought to increase production by humanizing it. The Mayo-Roethlisberger research has been strongly criticized as being inadequately controlled and interpreted, but its basic ideas, such as social system within the work environment, have stood the test of time, the important point is that it was substantial research about human behavior at work, and its influence was widespread and enduring.According to George and Jones (1996), organizational behavior provides guidelines that both manager and workers can use to understand and appreciate many forces that affect behavior in organizations and make correct decisions on how to motivate people and mobilize other resources to achieve organizational goals. Knowledge on organizational behavior derived from scholarly studies replaces intuition and gut feeling with a well-researched body of theories and systematic guidelines for managi ng behavior in organization.Mangkunegara (2000) defines performance as work result qualitatively and quantitatively that can be achieved in conducting a job as demanded by responsibility. While H. J. Bernardin and J. C. A. Russel (1993) state that performance is an income produced by a worker during his/her service time. V. M. Rivai and A. F. Basri (2005) conclude the definition of performance as a function of motivation and capability. To finalize a demanded job or duty, someone should have a certain motivation and capability.Capability of a worker is not worth if he/she does not know what should be done and how to do it. Target achieving is one of measurements in performance appraisal. There are three criteria in assessing performance, i. e. (1) individual duty, (2) individual behavior, and (3) individual characteristics. From the above description, it can be inferred that performance can be categorized as work result achieved by a worker in a certain time in an organization based on power, responsibility, and duties.During his/her service time, performance of an individual can be observed (Rivai & Basri, 2005). Meaning that performance appraisal should always relate to task finalization. Whenever performance appraisal does not relate to job finalization, then such appraisal will result in a misjudgment and a mistake. Bibliography Luthans, Fred. (2011). Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York Nelson, Debra L. Quick, James C. Organizational Behavior Foundation, Realities and Challenges. (1997). West Publishing Company, St. Paul MN. http://www. ehow. com/info_8156482_objectives-organizational-behavior. html#ixzz27xcgisTS http://www. brainyquote. com/words/be/behavior135737. html#IIMeu7jGSj4UxvQL. 99 http://mansci. journal. informs. org/content/28/2/138. short http://www. livestrong. com/article/178352-how-behavior-modification-operates-to-motivate-people/

American history----assess the view that the success of the new deals Coursework

American history----assess the view that the success of the new deals 1933-41 has been over rated by historians - Coursework Example What is also significant to note about this whole initiative is the fact that it resulted into the strong economic recovery and a complete and new change in the way America society tend to work and behave. The intervention by the government in the economy allowed the economy to pick up and vital economic variables such as growth, unemployment and inflation started to show positive signs. It also brought forward a new political alignment in the country as the Democratic Party started to emerge as the sign of liberal ideas and newly empowered trade unions and minorities. (Edsforth, 2000) Though the New Deal left many important political, social, as well as economical imprints on the American society however, question remains as to whether the New Deal has been really successful or whether its success was overrated by the Historians. This paper will therefore attempt to discuss and argue as to whether the New Deal was really a success or it was overrated by the Historians. From economics point of view there are many reasons as to why the great depression happened however, the overall impact of the great depression has on the economy of US and its society have been great. During this era gross domestic product of the country greatly declined and there was a sharp increase in the unemployment level. High unemployment levels therefore created the general unrest within the American society and people were looking for change which can actually bring overall relief to the general masses of the society. (Weatherford & Sergeyev, 2000). What is also significant to note that before the great depression there was also a general political complacency in the country. Conservatives were ruling the country and they maintained a very strong stance of having minimum government intervention into the markets. Minimum interventions by the government therefore resulted into the over-hyped activity in the markets

Week13 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Week13 - Essay Example A patent is a protection granted to an inventor that limits other people from using or selling an invention (Andersen, 2006). Patents protect the ideas of a person and limit anybody from using them without authorization from the patent holder. A grey market is created when people sell genuine trademarked goods without the permission of local trademark owner (Andersen, 2006). Such products are authorized and trademarked in a foreign nation and are of similar quality to those in the local market. It is a market where the products being bought or sold are not within the authorized trading channels of the manufacturer. Local businesses that have trademarks in the USA are highly affected by the grey market. Products in the grey market are of similar quality but come at lower prices. Due to this, a growing gray market reduces the profitability of the trademark owner in the USA. A grey market makes owning the trademark unworthy since the protection created by the trademark has no full

Globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Globalization - Essay Example The core intention of promoting globalization and development among countries had positive purposes and tasks to make the world more mature, connected and interdependent. The supporters of globalization influenced many government policy makers, economists, businessmen and journalists into believing that globalization is inevitable and everyone involved should do their best to smooth the process of financial, political and cultural development and integration (Bridges, 2007; Stiglitz, 2006). However, financial and corporate globalization overcame the globalization of production and cultural development. In reality it occurred to be an opportunity for powerful imperialist countries to freely intrude into the economies of other countries and use their financial, natural and labor resources for their own benefits. Despite global economy has grown rapidly due to globalization and development, such international problems like poverty, inequality, illegal immigration and global environment degradation still exist and become even worse year after year. The current paper will determine the meaning of globalization and development in addition to discussing and comparing different approaches to globalization, mainly skeptical and hyper-globalist. It becomes extremely important to explore and critically assess the implications of globalization for patterns of global inequality and the prospects for sustainable development (Allen and Thomas, 2000). By better understanding the map of rhetorical formations in widely-read texts regarding globalization, it might be possible to understand better the concerns and intentions of these opposite viewpoints on globalization and recent global changes. Understanding the Globalization Globalization may be defined as the integration of production and consumption in all markets across the world through uninhibited trade, financial flows, and mutual exchange of technology and knowledge with the free inter-country movement of labor (Jones, 2 010; Watkins and Fowler, 2003). Allen and Thomas (2000) refers to globalization as the growing sense of interconnectedness, when â€Å"the strong are becoming stronger and the weak weaker† as the benefits of globalization accrue to a relatively small proportion of the world’s population while global poverty and social exclusion continue to increase. Globalization has intensified interdependence and competition between economies in the world market having a favorable impact on the overall growth rate of the economy. The process of globalization presumes opening up of world trade, internationalization of financial markets, development of advanced means of communication, growing importance of MNCs, population migration and the increased mobility of goods, capital, data, ideas and people (Ritzer, 2010). Due to globalization not only the GDP has increased, but the direction of growth in the sectors has also been changed. Earlier the maximum part of the GDP in the

Critically appraise the contribution of Le Grand's knights, knaves, Essay

Critically appraise the contribution of Le Grand's knights, knaves, pawns and queens framework to our u - Essay Example In support of his theory, Le Grand provided the following example: in the ‘classic’ era of the welfare state (1945-79), presumed that the motivation of the public servants was their professional ethic and the interests of those they served were of great concern to them. They appeared as public-spirited altruists (or knights) as they carried out their duties in the public interest. Taxpayers came out in the same light as the public servants because of their willingness to pay taxes. However, as per Le Grand’s theory, after 1979 the public experienced grave assaults on assumptions about motivation and behavior. There was the presumption that the public could understand the behavior of public officials and professionals if they appeared self-interested. Ultimately, it seemed objectionable that the beneficiaries of services received treatment as passive recipients-rather the consumer should be the king (Le Grand 1997). This paper examines the worth of Le Grand’ s contribution in ‘knights, knaves, pawns and queens’. This is in regards to the framework of our understanding of relationships between public authorities and organizations, which provider public services paid for. In that line, this paper looks at the merits and shortcomings of Le Grand’s contribution. ... such policies, two central questions that need answers: 1) Are public employees driven by primary self-interested motives or are they public-spirited altruists? 2) Do the recipients of services posse some capability to influence their situations or are their situations merely the product of broader social circumstances? (The ABCs of public service motivation, altruism, behavior, & compensation 2011) Logically he contends that the pay and incentive systems that stimulate the government servants enthusiasm should be formulated in such a manner that it is tough to both types of behavior; and that outsourcing of public sector work to non-profit bodies should not assume that these organizations are purely altruistic (Andrew 2004). This is one of the key contributions of this model that many scholars and researchers received well in this field of study. Flaws in Le Grand’s theory Le Grand’s contribution, since its introduction, has undergone remarkable scrutiny to date. Many scholars and institutions, in this field, have acknowledged, expanded or criticized this framework. The following are some of the issues that arise to challenge and expose the inadequacies that are in the model. Simplicity of the model raises a lot of concern. Many argue that his analysis is too simplistic a means of capturing the complexity of the realities of human motivation and agency. As there is a variety of knights and knaves, and people are not simply pawns or queens (Welshman 2004). For instance, knights exist in two types. The first type, act-relevant knights receive personal gratification from performing an altruistic act. The second type act-irrelevant knights receive personal gratification when those who need help receive it, regardless of who actually performs the helping act (The ABCs

Bankruptcy prediction Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Bankruptcy prediction - Research Paper Example e year correctly classify the dozen or so listed industrial companies which will fail, but will incorrectly identify about 120 of the remaining 600 as likely to go bankrupt. In fact, analysts who might use the models t help them produce their credit ratings are likely to try them out before relying on them and making them self-fulfulling. It therefore seems unlikely that a misclassification error rate of 1 in 5 for surviving listed companies would be acceptable, even allowing for the substantially greater costs of incorrectly identifying a bankrupt company as sound when compared to those of misclassifying a surviving company as a prima facie failure." Richard Morris This paper examines whether accounting based measures effectively capture publicly available information about a firm's probability of bankruptcy. Section 2 Section 3 describes model and research methodology which includes details about the sample selection procedures, variable estimation and descriptive statistics are reported in section 4. Section 5 present and discuss the results, while Section 6 summarizes and concludes the paper. Also include a list of variables in Appendix A. 1. Literature Review 1.1 Accounting ratios Professor Edward Altman invented a model called Z-Scores by applying multivariate formula to forecast bankruptcy probabilities of the firms over 30 years from 1965-1999. In 2000, he extended his research throughout the year 1999 by improving accuracies of 96% one period prior to bankruptcy to 70% five annual reporting periods prior. Ohlson (1980) also developed a bankruptcy prediction model with logit analysis using a number of bankruptcy firms that were traded on NYSE and AMSE during the 1970s. Begley Joy et al (1997) critised the estimation models of Altman (1968) and...In fact, analysts who might use the models t help them produce their credit ratings are likely to try them out before relying on them and making them self-fulfulling. It therefore seems unlikely that a misclassification error rate of 1 in 5 for surviving listed companies would be acceptable, even allowing for the substantially greater costs of incorrectly identifying a bankrupt company as sound when compared to tho se of misclassifying a surviving company as a prima facie failure." Richard Morris Professor Edward Altman invented a model called Z-Scores by applying multivariate formula to forecast bankruptcy probabilities of the firms over 30 years from 1965-1999. In 2000, he extended his research throughout the year 1999 by improving accuracies of 96% one period prior to bankruptcy to 70% five annual reporting periods prior. Ohlson (1980) also developed a bankruptcy prediction model with logit analysis using a number of bankruptcy firms that were traded on NYSE and AMSE during the 1970s. Begley Joy et al (1997) critised the estimation models of Altman (1968) and Ohlson (1980) were not performed well by using 1980's data.

Muslims and Islam Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Muslims and Islam - Research Paper Example It was once the religion of a sophisticated and powerful world empire, but is today the religion of some of the least dynamic parts of the world, often found in countries that have deliberately avoided integration into an increasingly globalized world.' Muslims finds their basic teachings explained through the Holy Scripture, The Qur’an, revealed to the final prophet of God, Muhammad, over a period of forty years. However Muslims believe that Islam was revealed to many generations and prophets before this as well, and consider it being the true religion of many prophets that are mentioned in other religions as well, such as Moses, Abraham and Jesus. The basic fundamentals of Islam lie on five basic tenants, or the Five Pillars of Islam as they are referred to. These are Shahada, or testament, Salat, or Prayer, Sawm, or Fasting, Zakat, or Alms and Hajj, or holy pilgrimage. The first pillar of Islam is Shahada. Shahada is to bear witness or testify to the fact that Allah is the One and the only entity worthy of worship as God, and furthermore, that Muhammad is his last prophet. This is the first and fundamental pillar, and is considered the most important one, as all other beliefs arise from this basic belief, that is the oneness of Allah. The Muslims also testify to Muhammad as being the last prophet of Allah so as to rule out the possibility of any future claims to prophet-hood and thereby eliminating any further amendments to the religion. Prayer is the second Pillar of Islam and is fairly straightforward: prayer at five designated times a day, in a designated manner, to Allah. Its purpose is to instill in the believer a sense of scheduled division of time and to keep with the believer a constant reminder of Allah and their beliefs throughout the day. Sawm, or fasting, is observed in the holy month of Ramadan (The ninth month of the Islamic Calender) and involves fasting until sunset for the month, so as to instill patience and perseverance into the Mus lim observing the fast, as well as have them understand how those less fortunate than them live every day of the year, without food or water. It is to instill in the believer a sense of patience and steadfastness, through sacrifice for Allah. The fourth pillar of Islam is Zakat, the practice of giving a designated amount of alms to the poor, which is based on a fixed percentage on the possessions of the believer. It is so the rich can help the less privileged, as well as instilling in them a sense of generosity and teaching the positive use of money rather than encouraging it to be hoarded or kept without being given away to others. Finally, the last pillar of Islam is Hajj, or pilgrimage to the sacred land of Mecca, which every able Muslim must complete at least once in their lifetime, so as to show their devotion to their Lord and offer a pilgrimage to the place that is considered the root of their religion. Nonetheless, even though these are the five most basic and important poin ts of belief, the fundamental 'pillars' on which the religion of Islam stands, one can say that this is what basically gives a base to the religion. In actuality, there are many other beliefs and doctrines that are also considered with fundamental importance. For example, Muslims place significant importance on the lessons taught by Muhammad, almost as much importance as they place on the words of the Qur'an, which they believe to have come from Allah directly through an angel, revealed to Muhammad. The lessons taught

A geographer assesses the impact of diamond mining on South Africa Research Paper

A geographer assesses the impact of diamond mining on South Africa - Research Paper Example Mining is South Africa (SA) started in 1880s after the discovery of diamonds on the banks of river Orange. The mining of diamonds and other metals like gold, platinum and cadmium have significantly contributed to making SA the richest nation on the African continent.The impact of diamond mining in SA is a profound phenomenon whose results can be noticed with turn of the eye. The discovery of the first diamond on the banks of river Orange saw the subsequent change of the regions name from Vooruitzigt to New Rush to Kimberly (Ritter 372). This is just an example of how diamond mining had a life changing influences on the lives of everyone in SA. The discovery of diamonds in Kimberly led to a rush or a massive migration of people from other places who came there to mine this new found treasure. According to historical records, in 1873 Kimberly became the largest and most populated town in SA just a few months after the confirmation of diamond deposits in the region. Kimberly is today kn own as a town with one of the largest holes dug by hand held tools, which has contributed to the site being named as a world heritage site by UNESCO (Sharma 132). Kimberly a city in the Northern cape of SA is nowadays better known as the historic town that pioneered the mining revolution in SA, and helped forever shape the fortunes of the country as a leading producer of precious metals and gemstones. Diamond mining, in SA, can be attributed to have had a significant impact on the lives of communities and individuals who got directly or indirectly involved with the mining activities of SA. A notable character or name that is synonymous with mining and especially diamond mining and trade in the world De Beers. The second large diamond to be discovered in Kimberly was discovered on land belonging to the De Beers brothers who later came to dominate diamond mining and trade in SA and all over the world up to this date. This was made possible by the consolidation of the small mining comp anies of time to form the De Beers Consolidated Mines which has a monopoly over diamond trade in the world up to this date (Afolayan 68). Diamond mining caused elevated levels of rural-urban migration especially of black Africans who sought employment in the mines and the great city life experience that Kimberly as the largest town in SA provided. The De Beers encouraged this rural-urban migration because it provided cheap labor that was vital to the profitable running of the mines. The urbanization of this region in SA contributed to a myriad of both negative and positive social cultural factors that were directly or indirectly affected by mining activities. A good example of a vice or social ill that can be construed to be as a direct result of mining and the miners who worked there is prostitution (Marsh 230). Women and girls from every part of SA moved to Kimberly in an effort to cash in on the gold and diamond rush that was taking place. There were other varieties of socio-cult ural ills that are usually spawned by urbanization and they were all present in Kimberly. Mining helped create a phenomenon called the status quo, which saw the establishment of classes within the society. These classes saw black Africans occupying the lowest class in that society, which was the poorest, least educated and most oppressed by the rich and educated class of mainly white people (Pitzl 141). This unequal stature in society is still present today albeit diminished or in represented differently compared to that period. Urbanization meant that people got exposed to the white man’s education which can be said to have significantly contributed SA’

Longitudinal method compared with 5 other methods in text book Research Paper - 1

Longitudinal method compared with 5 other methods in text book - Research Paper Example In essence, longitudinal studies usually allow tracking of people; therefore, different longitudinal surveys given people are less likely to be the true reflection of cultural or behavior different over a given period (Jin and Rounds, 2012). Longitudinal research methods allow observation of changes in a more accurate way; therefore, it can be applied in different fields particularly business field among other fields (Bryman, 2012). Notably, longitudinal studies often allow accurate observation of changes that occur during the study in numerous fields. In nursing and medicine fields, the study is often designed to reveal the predictors of certain diseases. In marketing, the same study is often applied to identify the needed changes to advertisements due to attitude and behavior changes within the targeted audience. Longitudinal studies are classified among the observational studies; thus, it its application cannot allow the manipulation of variables of the study (Lee and Xia, 2011). In some instances, it has been noted that the longitudinal studies are less powerful to detect any causal relationship between variables than other experimental research methods (Wagner, 2010). However, due to their repeated observations at individual levels, longitudinal studies are more powerful than other cross-sectional observational studies. Additionally, longitudinal studies are capable of excluding time invariants within the unobservable individual difference, and they allow temporal observation of order of events (Morrow, 2011). Nonetheless, the longitudinal studies are every expensive since they take a longer period to be accomplished; thus, making it less convenient research method. Additionally, longitudinal studies may lack accuracy since sometimes they experience changes in variables especially in case of death of a particular data set. These underlying differences and similarities between longitudinal research studies allows to compared with

Narrative composition and content Essay Example for Free

Narrative composition and content Essay In this essay I will talk about the narration, composition and the content of the newspapers which are published today. These three points are taken very seriously as they play the most important role in the success and failure of the newspapers which are published. I chose a broadsheet newspaper to analyse first as it has the articles in more proffesional order, its contents are trustworthy and theres a bigger audience for it. Narration of the newspapers on the frontpage of the broadsheet newspapers you would find the biggest news, something which would shock the viewers and convince them to read the newspaper. As it will be on the National News page it has to be a big news, it could be about politics, disasters in businesses or terrorist attacks anything which will grab the attention and it could be happening nationally. It would be popular and affect the people globally. See more: how to start a narrative essay for college Then it would be the local news which might be important to the viewers who live in the city which is mentioned in the newspaper but mostly everyone prefers an international paper with a good local section later in the newspaper as it may not be that important as much as the national news would be because the local news would be for a smaller audience it would come after the bigger news as it would be for the whole country. After the local news and adverts would come the Sports news pages which would be at the back of the newspaper because sports doesnt take much training or intelligence to grasp and it has a wide appeal. The reason newspapers are set up like that is because that setup makes them the most money. As the sports pages have always been at the back of the newspapers now the viewers know where to find the sports, if they dont want to see the other news they can just go to the sports area straight away and look at that, so they dont have to find it going through the whole newspaper. Â  Contents in newspapers- In tabloid newspapers we find stories of political events, crime, business, art/entertainment, society and sports similar to the broadsheet newspapers but they arent as big. The news about the ordinary people and what goes around the country which would be more emphasized, we find gossips about celebrities and their private lives etc for example The Sun they put stories for the people who are less proffessionals and look for something more humourous and fun rather than the serious crime and stressful news they find in the broadsheet newspapers. The tabloid newspapers make the news in a more intersting form with more pictures. Many people buy it to catch up with the news going around the world, as tabloids are more picture based the workers read it during their lunchtimes as a timepass and entertainment. Many readers think its really pointless It Seems that the owners of these papers care about doing is putting celebrity news as the major top stories. They have made celebrity news more important than the War on terror more important than global warming more important than the major problems this country this world is facing. Its not a real paper anymore its nothing more than a tabloid celebrity newspaper. Why changes were needed to be made to some of the newspaper content The contents in the newspapers we find today are completely different from what they were like when they first came out they actually needed to change for the better. Then they didnt care about how to please everyone and just used to put the content without looking at any audience and not thinking about the foreigners and the people from different cultures and thats why the newspapers then wernt that popular and successful whereas now the newspapers have improved and are more successful now because there are more foreign people in the country so the content needs to provide material for their interests aswell in order to gain more readers and also for that rather than having information only on british sport, they have news from all countries sport and their progress but with this the english people are also interested in other countries. The contents we find now in the newspapers are far more interesting now. In tabloids we find the news about everything but in a more humourous way even the global news would be presented in a similar way but the broadsheet newspapers are for the more serius audience who just simply want to know the news and no other interference with it they want to know more about crime, finance, stocks and shares and business although they are getting used to the entertainment and the gossip news everywhere and are started to get into these kind of topics. As the newspapers need to appeal to all different types of people with different thoughts and backgrounds even the broadsheets include small informations of the celebrities and the current affairs mixed with other news for . e. g law, art, taxes, celebs and horoscopes in the tabloid newspaper are there so that they can get more viewers. As there are more issues to discuss in the media now and the way aspects are portrayed are a lot more controversial ways to attract the readers or viewers like the page three women who are completely exposed and revealing everything to get the men viewers and the Madeleine McCann case and how the newspapers were allowed to write bias viewpoints about the situation and not jus this there are many others, tabloids are more open about their opinion but broadsheets are not so open and obvious. Even technologyy was to be blamed for the changes not to be happening in the early years as the technology wasnt as good back then the print outs and the quality of it wasnt that good either so they couldnt made it more attractive and colourful but now we can do everything so there are more changes and the newspapers look a lot better too. So this shows that the changes in the contents were quite essential to the newspapers.

Britannias Market Strategy and Competitive Strategy

Britannias Market Strategy and Competitive Strategy In this document, an in-depth analysis on the Britannias Marketing Strategy and Competitive Strategy is illustrated. In detail this report contains the different marketing strategies adopted by Britannia to help them grow and succeed in the market. This paper covers many sections such as; PEST-G analysis, SWOT analysis, Growth strategy and Marketing Mix. In view of the fact that Britannia Industries Limited is a food based organization which produces a large variety of Biscuits, Diary products, Rusk, Bread and Cakes, it is evident that they have now excelled in their business. Within this document the evidence of companys current position and success is at hand with a concentration on the marketing mix and the SWOT analysis of Britannia. In brief, we see that Britannia Industries Limited, continues to improve the quality of their products to meet the consumers demands and prevail over the competitive edge. Britannia Biscuits was set up in 1892, in a very plain and ordinary house in Kolkata with the initial investments of Rs. 295. By 1978, Britannia biscuits had crossed 60% of the shares of the firm, followed by renaming the company to Britannia Industries Limited(BIL) and in 1983 it crossed Rs 100 crores revenue margin. Then as we know, in 1992 it celebrated its Platinum Jubilee. Eat Healthy, Think Better was revealed in 1997. It was gaining the status of quality and value and in 1999, the Britannia Khao, World Cup Jao promotion made the consumers even more aware then before which helped them even more prominent in the market. In the 21st century it came out as Indias largest and most famous brand of biscuit. Now Britannia is no more just another ordinary biscuit but it is one of the most renowned and well known biscuit in the world. From a small fairy tale it reached new standards and from a small investment it has got a high margin of profit which has been very positive for the company investors. They have a variety of biscuits even considering the health and economy to the life-style oriented types. THE MARKET ENVIRONMENT Business Sector And Geographical Market. Britannia Industries Limited is a public food industry, with its headquarters located in Banglore, well-known for its Britannia and Tiger biscuits. It now has around 300 stores spread, owned by Danone and Kalabakan Investments in India. As we know, they deal in Biscuits, Rusk, Diary products, Bread and Cakes. The company, in 2007 formed a Joint Venture with Khimji Ramdas Group to expand and sell biscuits to the Middle East countries, as its the most respected business and the key district players in selling biscuits. It now provides a large range of commodities under the brand Nutro, which is the primary brand name in Middle East. PEST G Analysis Political Factors: The Food regulations were put into practice at the State Central level. Severe TAX rules had been started. Several other Government Regulations were put into action. Economic Factors: The Gross Domestic Products started rising at 8-9% A raise in the disposable returns took place. Rupee Appreciation was a great concern. Social Factors: 70% inhabitants are lower than 35 years of age. Good knowledge among the individuals of various things. Technological Factors: Process improvement and Product Innovation played a great role. Innovative techniques were thought to be adopted. THE COMPETITION Competitors Parle Glucose also known as Parle-G (G for Genius) is manufactured in India by the Parle Products which is one of the oldest brand names and the biggest selling biscuits in India. Market Share Parle-G has a market share of 70% in the biscuit industry in India followed by Britannia, Tiger with 17-18%, and Sunfeast of 8-9% share. Sales/Profit Trend More than 50% of the companys turnover is estimated at around Rs 20 billion. It has started expanding to areas such as Western Europe, USA, UK, UAE and Canada. Target Market Parle has a target market which is focused in India, consisting of people of all category groups such as children, teenagers, family members and even old aged people as it is a popular biscuit eaten during Tea-time snack. THE COMPANY Market Share and Sales and Profit Trend Britannia market position is very high due to factors relating to its pricing strategies, distribution channels and variety of products. They commence new products to satisfy the consumers needs giving them new and alternative products to choose, which in turn benefit the company by having more potential for growth. So we understand that the company is not only growing, but also gaining profits. Their estimated market share is 38%. In the early years of the company, they received sales at an annual rate of 16% in market and their operational proceeds were nearly 18%. But now it has been increased to 27%, giving Britannia annual revenue of Rs 2,200 crore only from their biscuits. 10% is contributed by the diary products. They have an annual capacity of 433,000 tones of biscuits with sale while exporting up to $150.75 million. Swot Analysis Strengths Widely Distributed network and accepted by all age groups. Innovative products like-Little Hearts, 50-50 Chakkar, and Nice Time. Celebrity endorsements Sachin Tendulkar, Aamir Khan. The Brand Slogan of Britannia Eat Healthy Think Better is the key asset of the firm. It is available in various different forms of packages. The variety of products is an added advantage as they not only focus on assorted biscuits but also cakes, breads, Rusk and diary products. Weaknesses Faces stiff competition from their rival Parle and Nestle on the basis of Price and Distribution channels. The industry and technology requires high investments. As too many different types of brands enter the market, they might loose focus. Even though the prices are affordable, they might not be easily available to the lower income groups. Opportunities People are willing to try newer variants and hence it satisfies the taste buds by its newer variants. It generates employment opportunities. As consumers are very concerned about their health, it helps them to strengthen brands NutriChoice, Milk Bikis, and Tiger biscuits. Competition increases. This helps to enhance mergers. Threats They might sometimes be unable to utilize all the resources efficiently. They may provide poor quality of biscuits for more profits. As there are a number of biscuits in the existing market, they have large number of challengers. Consumer demands may alter impulsively. Government might come up with new restrictions without notices. THE COMPANYS MARKETING STRATEGY Marketing Strategy include anything from facts, events, procedures, values and personalities. Britannia nearly sells all their products all over India and even exports it other few countries. Their market rate kept growing every year in the Indian market. Therefore, BIL has implemented a Diversification strategy, so that it becomes the market leader in the food and biscuits industry. But they made sure that when they diversify, they make similar kinds of products such as cheese, diary products and even more bakery items. So the company can realize their marketing strategies by underlining the opportunities in the market. There are a various different strategies they adopted. Segmentation They believed in the best quality of products for the consumers as they are health conscious and so they fulfil this need of the consumers. Targeting The Company focussed on building a good relationship with the customers as they are they play the most important part in the sale of products. Not only did they keep up to the old customers expectation, but they also try to make new customers as their retention plays a major role for the growth of their business. Positioning While manufacturing new products, they dont fail to remember their competitors way of fighting against them, instead they pay even more attention to each and every step they take towards success as they want to be ahead of them and succeed. Growth Strategy Even though Britannia biscuits started off by selling their products in India, they slowly expanded and started to export it to other parts of the world. By doing so, they adapted to the different cultures of those countries and made plans for those neighbouring areas and researched and analyzed which product has more demand than the others and ways to improve their sales. Promoting their brands is a very essential idea for their marketing strategy as it helps understand the consumers the variety of benefits they get while purchasing the product. They should advertise and publicize their message clearly stating the facts. Based on the marketing strategies, we understand that building a brand is an important part of the company. They understand how to increase sales and profits in a short span of time while continuing to promote its variety of brands to create loyal consumers. THE MARKETING MIX Product Britannia have a large variety of products to choose from, not only do they manufacture Biscuits, but they also make different types of Diary items, Breads and Rusk. They launch products which in gets good returns for the company through building a good brand and quality products which are supplied across different countries. The main streamline of Britannia products include: Biscuits such as: Marie Gold Treat Milk Bikis Time Pass Tiger 50-50 NutriChoice also available for Diabetic people. Dairy Delights include few products like: Cheese Milk Dahi (Yoghurt) Ghee Butter Bread types have: Sandwiches Coffee Confectionary Assorted Breads Benefits of Branding As we all know, Britannia biscuits still have higher growth potential in the market as its one of the best-known brands in India and popular among other countries as well. Even though they have come up with new variety of biscuits, they still emphasis on their initial biscuit brands such as Tiger, Good Day, Marie, Treat and even more. Britannia has diversified by also making Breads, Cakes and other Diary products. Its brands are considered to be an excellent value by Indias price-conscious consumers. Tiger Biscuit is one of the most distinguished brands and is extremely popular among the rural areas and consumers. Sports and sporting events also are a key channel for promotions. The companys Britannia khao, World Cup jao (Eat Britannia, travel to see the World Cup) campaign in 2003 was the most recognized sales promotion among all Cricket World Cup-related sales activity. Place Britannia had started selling products in India, but now it has expanded overseas to places like Middle East and Sri Lanka. They have even started to export their goods to places such as: USA Ghana Saudi Arabia Kuwait Bahrain Qatar UAE Oman Seychelles Singapore Price Britannia has adopted the Market Penetration Method of pricing. It focuses on the quality of the products keeping in mind the pricing strategy. This helps improve and generate large sale volume for their products. It aims at maximizing the market share and to produce new product lines. A few examples are: Vegetarian Cakes are available at Rs. 15/- for a 75 gm pack. Nutrichoice Health Starter Kit is for Rs 100. Britannia Tiger Banana packed with IRON ZOR priced at Rs.2, Rs.4 and Rs.10. Promotions To attract the consumers of Britannia, they very innovatively came up with ideas to promote their brand in numerous different ways, and now they have leveraged Indias two most successful passions of all times: Cricket Movies Nearly every Indians dream was to be present at a stadium while India is playing cricket, during the World Cup, so Britannia created the Britannia Khao, World Cup Jao contest in 1999. They made it very simple for their target market to enter this contest, which was to purchase more products to win a scratch and win lucky card and winning an all expenses paid trip to England to watch the World Cup Match. They held it again in 2002-2003 held in South Africa which successfully set a unique trend of their own. They even came up with another creative promotion of Britannia Khao, Cricketer Ban Jao that was fuelled by the need of every Indian to be a part of the passion called Cricket followed by a promotion called Britannia Lagaan Match in 2001 that revolved around a movie called Lagaan was based on a cricket match. This promotion gave the consumers a chance to interact with the film stars and also get to pay cricket with them. The match had over 40,000 spectators and made the headlines of leading newspapers and news channels and was found to be the most unbeaten promotional act of that year. So we understand that sports and the sporting events are the key promotional tools of Britannia. Therefore we now know that Britannia promotes their products through various medias such as Events, Television, Magazines and Sales Promotions too. EVALUATION OF THE COMPANYS STRATEGIES AND TACTICS Companys current position/success Britannia Company releases on November 10th, 2010 that BIL obtained sales of Rs 10,948 MM with growth of 27.5% which shows an increase. The company also releases that they received sales worth of Rs 9,128 MM during the year end, with a growth of 24.8% followed by a boost of 20% in the volume. Conclusion Now that we have an in-depth view of the companys profile, marketing strategy and marketing mix, it shows the different methods used to adapt to promote and publicize their products across India and other countries. Based on the information researched, we find that they focus on consumer needs to a very large extent. This is shown by the fact that, since consumers are more health conscious nowadays, they have introduced NutriChoice Diabetic Biscuits. It is also proven by their tagline, Eat Healthy, Think Better. In conclusion, we see that how a small sized company has grown to be one of the largest biscuit selling brands across India and many other countries world-wide.

Glass-ceramics: Types, Technology and Application

Glass-ceramics: Types, Technology and Application CHAPTER 1 1. Introduction 1.1 Glass-ceramics Glass-ceramics are fine-grained polycrystalline materials formed when glasses of suitable compositions are heat treated and thus undergo controlled crystallisation to the lower energy, crystalline state. It must be emphasised here that only specific glass compositions are suitable precursors for glass-ceramics due to the fact that some glasses are too stable and difficult to crystallise whereas others result in undesirable microstructures by crystallising too readily in an uncontrollable manner. In addition, it must also be accentuated that in order for a suitable product to be attained, the heat-treatment is critical for the process and a range of generic heat treatment procedures are used which are meticulously developed and modified for a specific glass composition. A glass-ceramic is formed by the heat treatment of glass which results in crystallisation. Crystallisation of glasses is attributed to thermodynamic drives for reducing the Gibbs free energy, and the Amorphous Phase Separation (APS) which favours the crystallisation process by forming a nucleated phase easier than it would in the original glass. When a glass is melted, the liquid formed from the melting might spontaneously separate into two very viscous liquids or phases. By cooling the melt to a temperature below the glass transformation region it will result in the glass being phase separated and this is called liquid-liquid immiscibility. This occurs when both the phases are liquid. Hence a glass can simply be considered as a liquid which undergoes a demixing process when it cools. The immiscibility is either stable or metastable depending on whether the phase seperation occurs above or below the liquidus temperature respectively. The metastable immiscibility is much more inmporta nt and has two processes which then cause phase seperation and hence crystallisation; nucleation and crystal growth and spinodal decomposition. The first APS process has two distinguished stages; Nucleation (whereby the crystals will grow to a detectable size on the nucleus) and Crystal growth. Nucleation can either be homogeneous; where the crystals form spontaneously within the melt or heterogeneous; crystals form at a pre-existing surface such as that due to an impurity, crucible wall etc. Many a time the parent glass composition is specifically chosen to contain species which enhance internal nucleation which in the majority of cases is required. Such species also called nucleating agents can include metallic agents such as Ag, Pt and Pd or non-metallic agents such as TiO ­2, P2O5 and fluorides. The second process is spinodal decomposition which involves a gradual change in composition of the two phases until they reach the immiscibility boundary. As both the processes for APS are different, the glass formed will clearly result in having different morphology to each other. A glass-ceramic is usually not fully crystalline; with the microstructure being 50-95 volume % crystalline with the remainder being residual glass. When the glass undergoes heat treatment, one or more crystalline phases may form. Both the compositions of the crystalline and residual glass are different to the parent glass. In order for glass-ceramics having desirable properties to be developed, it is crucial to control the crystallisation process so that an even distribution of crystals can be formed. This is done by controlling the nucleation and crystal growth rate. The nucleation rate and crystal growth rate is a function of temperature and are accurately measured experimentally (Stookey 1959; McMillan 1979, Holand Beall 2002) The aim of the crystallisation process is to convert the glass into glass-ceramic which have properties superior to the parent glass. The glass-ceramic formed depends on efficient internal nucleation from controlled crystallisation which allows the development of fine, randomly oriented grains without voids, microcracks, or other porosity. This results in the glass-ceramic being much stronger, harder and more chemically stable than the parent glass. Glass-ceramics are characterised in terms of composition and microstructure as their properties depend on both of these. The ability of a glass to be formed as well as its degree of workability depends on the bulk composition which also determines the grouping of crystalline phases which consecutively govern the general physical and chemical characteristics, e.g. hardness, density, acid resistance, etc. As mentioned earlier, nucleating agents are used in order for internal nucleation to occur so that the glass-ceramic produced has desirable properties. Microstructure is the key to most mechanical and optical properties; it can promote or diminish the role of the key crystals in the glass-ceramic. The desirable properties obtained from glass-ceramics are crucial in order for them to have applications in the field of biomaterials. Glass-ceramics are used as biomaterials in two different fields: First, they are used as highly durable materials in restorative dentistry and second, they are applied as bioactive materials for the replacement of hard tissue. Dental restorative materials are materials which restore the natural tooth structure (both in shape and function), exhibit durability in the oral environment, exhibit high strength and are wear resistance. In order for dental restorative materials to restore the natural tooth structure, it is crucial to maintain the vitality of the tooth. . However non-vital teeth may also be treated with restorative materials to reconstruct or preserve the aesthetic and functional properties of the tooth. In order for glass-ceramics to be used for dental applications, they must possess high chemical durability, mechanical strength and toughness and should exhibit properties which mimic the natural tooth microstructure in order for it to be successful as an aesthetic. Glass-ceramics allow all these properties to be united within one material. As mentioned previously, for a glass-ceramic to have the desired properties, the glass is converted into a glass-ceramic via controlled crystallisation to achieve the crystal phase wanted and hence the desired properties it could possibly have. Hence, the glass-ceramic developed allows it to have properties such as low porosity, increased strength, durability, toughness etc which are crucial in the field of dental restorations as it prevents restorative failures which are mainly due to stress and porosity which causes cracks and hence failures. It took many years of research in order to get a material strong enough to be initially used as a dental reconstructive material. However over the past 10-15 years, research has progressed vastly and now glass-ceramics demonstrate good strength, high durability and good aesthetics. The development and processing of glass-ceramics has been focused on particular clinical applications, such as dental inlays, crowns, veneers, bridges and dental posts with abutments. Glass-ceramics are divided into seven types of materials: Mica glass-ceramics Mica apatite glass-ceramics Leucite glass-ceramics Leucite apatite glass-ceramics Lithium Disilicate glass-ceramics Apatite containing glass-ceramics ZrO2-containing glass-ceramics The first commercially usable glass ceramic products for restorative dentistry were composites of mica glass ceramics. Dicor ® and Dicor ® MGC were products based on these. According to the mechanism of controlled volume crystallisation of glasses, tetrasilicic micas, Mg2.5Si4O10F2, showing crystal sizes of 1 to 2 ÃŽ ¼m in the glass ceramic were produced. Dicor ® being amongst them was shaped by means of centrifugal casting methods to produce dental restorations such as dental crowns and inlays. Depending on the different crystal sizes and the corresponding microstructure of the glass ceramic, it was also possible to manufacture glass ceramics for machining applications. [53], Dicor ® MGC being amongst them. This resulted in the characteristic of good machinability in this type of glass-ceramic to be exploited and results concluded that crystals upto only 2 ÃŽ ¼m in length in the material improved mechanical strength over other materials. Mica-apatite glass-ceramics have been produced in the SiO2-Al2O3-Na2O-K2O-MgO-CaO-P2O5-F system. The main crystal phases are phlogopite, (K,Na)Mg3(AlSi3O10)F2  and fluorapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F. The base glass consists of three glass phases: a large droplet-shaped phosphate-rich phase, a small droplet-shaped silicate and a silicate glass matrix. Mica is formed during heat treatment, as in apatite-free glass-ceramics, by in-situ crystallization via the mechanism of volume crystallization. Apatite is formed within the phosphate-rich droplet phase. Astonishingly, every single apatite crystal possesses its own nucleation site in the form of a single phosphate drop. The glass-ceramic is biocompatible and suitable for applications in head and neck surgery as well as in the field of orthopaedics. Leucite glass-ceramics can be formed by applying the advantage of the viscous flow mechanism. IPS Empress ® is of this type of glass-ceramic. The material is processed by using the lost wax technique, whereby a wax pattern of the dental restoration such as an inlay, onlay, veneer or crown is produced and then put in a refractory die material. Then the wax is burnt out to create space to be filled by the glass-ceramic. As the glass-ceramic has a certain volume of glass phase, the principle of viscous flow can be applied and hence the material can be pressed into a mould. Surface crystallisation and surface nucleation mechanisms were controlled in order for this type of glass-ceramic to be formed. [42, 54] Consequently, the manufacturing of inlays and crowns developed due to the application of viscous flow mechanism of glass-ceramics in different shapes. The resulting leucite glass-ceramic restorations transluceny, colour and wear resistance behaviour can then be adjusted to those of natural tooth.[55] Additionally, the leucite glass-ceramic restorations can be produced by machining with CAD/CAM. IPS ProCAD ® and IPS Empress ® CAD are glass ceramics produced via this method. All leucite glass-ceramic restorations are bonded to the tooth structure with a luting material, preferably an adhesive bonding system. The retentive pattern produced on the glass-ceramic surface is particularly advantageous in this respect. It was possible to develop a leucite apatite glass-ceramic derived from the SiO2-Al2O3-Na2O-K2O-CaO-P2O5-F system by combining two different mechanisms, i.e. controlled surface nucleation and controlled bulk nucleation. IPS d.SIGN ® is amongst these. The glass-ceramic was prepared according to the classic method of glass-ceramic formation: melting, casting to prepare a glass frit, controlled nucleation and crystallization. A two-fold reaction mechanism leads to the precipitation of fluoroapatite, Ca5(PO4)3F and leucite, KAlSi2O6 [42]. SEM pictures show the two-phase crystal content of apatite and leucite in this type of glass-ceramic. Fluoroapatite phase takes the form of needle-shaped crystals whereas the oval areas are the leucite crystals. The clinical application of this glass-ceramic has been proven to be suitable for clinical application as veneering material on metal frameworks for single units as well as for large dental bridges involving more than three units. The first glass-ceramic to be developed was by Stookey et al (1959) which contained Lithium disilicate. [37]. Further research into this field allowed for IPS Empress ®2 to be developed. This glass-ceramic was developed in order to extend the range of indications of glass-ceramics from inlay and crowns to three-unit bridges, by offering high strength, high fracture toughness and at the same time, a high degree of translucency. Both the flexural strength and fracture toughness of lithium disilicate glass-ceramics are almost three times of those of leucite glass-ceramics. Lithium disilicate glass-ceramic ingot are utilizied to produce the crown or bridge framework in combination with the viscous flow process. To further improve the aesthetic properties, i.e. translucency and shade match, and to optimally adjust the wear behaviour to that of the natural tooth, the lithium disilicate glass ceramic is veneered with an apatite-containing glass-ceramic using a sintering process. In order to meet the demanding requirements of CAD/CAM applications, a lithium metasilicate glassceramic, IPS e.max ®was developed. This material, which is supplied in a typically blue colour, is adjusted by thermal treatment in order to demonstrate a characteristic tooth colour. The range of IPS e.max ®products also encompasses various apatite-containing glass ceramics that are suitable for both layering material on lithium disilicate glass-ceramic and veneering material on ZrO2 sintered ceramic. The apatite crystal phase of the Ca5(PO4)3F type acts as a component that adjusts the optical properties of the restoration to natural tooth. For this reason, the crystallites are of nanoscale dimension. ZrO2 containing glass-ceramics was the first glass-ceramic developed to be fused to high strength ZrO2 ceramic dental posts. The glass-ceramic contains Li12ZrSi6O15 crystals as the main phase; however different types of crystals are also precipitated in the glassy matrix. ZrO2 has become very interesting not only in the field of medicine but also in dental applications. High-strength and high toughness dental posts, crowns and bridges can be prepared from this material. In order for a dental restorative material to be of clinical success, their most important properties include; high strength, high toughness, abrasion behaviour comparable to natural teeth, translucency, colour, durability) and the processing technologies (moulding, machining, sintering). [56] Furthermore, the material should have good marginal fit with the tooth, biocompatibility, good mechanical properties and low porosity. In addition to the aforementioned properties, the recent requirement for dental restorative materials is for its appearance to be similar to that of a natural tooth. Glass-ceramics have been researched immensely in order to fulfil high standards of function and aesthetics from an early stage. The trend for metal free dental restorations began from the 1970s whereby metal free feldspathic ceramics were reinforced with additional components. Since then, increasing the strength of these materials progressed rapidly by controlling the nucleation and crystallisation of glasses, as discussed earlier. These developments have now led to the introduction of a trend which is focused on achieving exceptional aesthetic results with glass ceramics as metal free dental restorations. Although glass-ceramics exhibit the desired properties for dental restoration, their main drawback is that they are brittle which the main cause of failure is. This is due to either fabrication defects; which are created during production of the glass-ceramic or secondly, surface cracks; which are due to machining or grinding. Therefore when processing the glass-ceramic, care needs to be taken in addition to choosing the suitable method for production for specific compositions of the glass-ceramic in order to improve their mechanical properties. Apart from the use of glass-ceramics for dental restorations, they can also be applied as bioactive materials for the replacement of hard tissue. Bone is a complex living tissue which has an elegant structure at a range of different hierarchical scales. It is basically a composite comprising collagen, calcium phosphate (being in the form of crystallised hydroxyapatite, HA or amorphous calcium phosphate, ACP) and water. Additionally, other organic materials, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids are also present in small quantities. Because bone is susceptible to fracture; there has always been a need, since the earliest time, for the repair of damaged hard tissue. Many years of research has attempted to use biomaterials to replace hard tissue, ranging from using bioinert materials, to bioactive materials such as ‘Bioglass (Hench et al) to ‘Apatite-wollastonite (A-W) glass-ceramics (Kokubo et al) and to calcium phosphate materials. Calcium phosphate based materials have received a great deal of attention in this field due to their similarity with the mineral phase of bone. 1.2 Calcium Phosphate Glasses The application of calcium phosphate material as a bone substitute began by Albee (1920), who reported that a tricalcium phosphate compound used in a bony defect promoted osteogenesis. Many years later, Levitt et al (1969) [65] and Monroe et al (1971) were the first to suggest the use of calcium phosphate ceramics for dental and medical implant materials. Subsequently in 1971, Hench et al developed a calcium phosphate containing glass-ceramic, called Bioglass ® and demonstrated that it chemically bonded with the host bone through a calcium phosphate rich layer. Furthermore the advantageous properties of calcium phosphate ceramics arose when Nery et al (1975) used a calcium phosphate ceramic for implants in surgically produced infrabony defects in dogs. This demonstrated that the calcium phosphate ceramic was nontoxic, biocompatible, and caused no significant haematological changes in the calcium and phosphorus levels. Since then, a great deal of research into calcium phosphate glas s-ceramics has been conducted as potentially bone substitutes in dentistry. Calcium phosphate based ceramics can be characterised accordingly; Hydroxyapatite (HA, Ca5(PO4)3OH) ÃŽ ²-tricalcium phosphate (ÃŽ ²-TCP, ÃŽ ²-Ca3(PO4)2) Biphasic calcium phosphates, BCP; mixture of HA and ÃŽ ²-TCP ÃŽ ²-calcium pyrophosphate (ÃŽ ²-CPP, ÃŽ ²-Ca2P2O7) Fluorapatite (FAP, Ca5(PO4)3F) Calcium phosphate based ceramics and their properties have been characterised according to the proportion of calcium to phosphorus ions in the structure. One of the most widely used synthetic calcium phosphate ceramics is hydroxyapatite, Ca5(PO4)3OH, HA and this is due to its chemical similarities to the inorganic component of hard tissues. HA, has a Ca:P molar ratio of 1.67. It has higher stability in aqueous media than other calcium phosphate ceramics. Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) is a biodegradable bioceramic with the chemical formula, Ca3(PO4)2. TCP dissolves in physiological media and can be replaced by bone during implantation. TCP has four polymorphs, the most common ones being ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ²-forms, of which ÃŽ ²-TCP has received a lot of attention in the field of bone substitutes. Slight imbalances in the ratio of Ca:P can lead to the appearance of extraneous phases. If the Ca:P ratio is lower than 1.67, then alpha- or beta tricalcium phosphate may be present after processing. If the Ca:P is higher than 1.67, calcium oxide (CaO) may be present along with the HA phase. These extraneous phases may adversely affect the biological response to the implant in-vivo. A TCP with a Ca:P ratio of 1.5 is more rapidly resorbed than HA. Hence, ÃŽ ²-TCP has been involved in recent developments aimed to improving its biological efficiency and its mechanical properties in order for it to be successful as bone substitutes. Mixtures of HA and TCP, known as biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP), have also been investigated as bone substitutes and the higher the TCP content in BCP, the higher the dissolution rate. The crystal structure of HA can accommodate substitutions by various other ions for the Ca2+, PO43− and OH− groups. The ionic substitutions can affect the lattice parameters, crystal morphology, crystallinity, solubility and thermal stability of HA. Anionic substitutions can either occur in the phosphate- or hydroxyl positions. Fluorapatite and chlorapatite are common examples of anionically substituted HA. They display a similar structure to HA, but the F− and Cl− ions substitute for OH−. A lot of research has gone into carbonate substituted HA and it has shown to have increased bioactivity compared to pure HA, which is attributed to the greater solubility of the carbonated substituted HA. Thus, recent work has been in progress in order to optimise the production and sintering behaviour of carbonated substituted HA in order for use in biomedical applications. Materials which are bioactive i.e. the ability to bond to living tissue and enhance bone formation, have the following characteristic compositional features: (i) SiO2 contents smaller than 60 mol%, (ii) high Na2O and CaO content, and (iii) high CaO:P2O5 ratio [80]. Although silica based bioactive materials have shown great clinical success in many dental and orthopaedic applications, its insoluble properties has resulted in it as a potential for a long term device and the long term reaction to silica, both locally and systematically is still unknown. [81] Therefore, silica free, calcium phosphate glasses have attracted much interest due to their chemical and physical properties. They offer a more controlled rate of dissolution compared to silica containing glasses, they are simple, easy to produce, biodegradable, biocompatible, bioresorbable due to their ability to completely dissolve in an aqueous environment and have excellent bioactivity, osteoconductivity as well as not causing a n inflammatory response. Due to their properties, especially due to it being bioresorbable, calcium phosphate glasses have been under investigation for several applications in the dental field, particular as implants. However only certain calcium phosphate compounds are suitable for implantation in the body, compounds with a Ca:P ratio less than 1 are not suitable for biological implantation due to their high solubility. The structural unit of phosphate glasses is a PO4 ­ tetrahedron. The basic phosphate tetrahedra form long chains and rings that create the three-dimensional vitreous network. All oxygens in the glass structure are bridging oxygens (BO), and the non-bridging oxygens (NBO) can be formed by including other species such as CaO and Na2O or MgO. Do to the effects of Ca2+, Na2+ ­ and Mg2+ in the glass structure; they are defined as glass network modifiers, which form the glassy state and are called ‘invert glasses. Hence the structure of phosphate glasses can be described using the Qn terminology, where n represents the number of bridging oxygens that a PO4 tetrahedron has in a P2O5 glass, every tetrahedron can bond at three corners producing layers of oxygen polyhedra which are connected together with Van der Waals bonds. When the PO4 tetrahedron bonds with three bridging oxygens, giving the Q3 species, it is referred to as an ultraphosphate glass, which usually consists of a 2D network. When it bonds to two bridging oxygens, usually in a 3D-network it gives the Q2 species, it is referred to as metaphosphate glass. Further addition gives Q1 species, also called pyrophosphate glass, which bonds only to one bridging oxygen. Finally, the Q0 species do not bond to any bridging oxygen and hence is known as an orthophosphate glass. [14] A large number of calcium phosphate glass compositions have been studied in order to exhibit suitable properties for use in biomedical applications until now, and they can be categorised into four groups: Calcium phosphate glasses containing Potassium Calcium phosphate glasses containing Magnesium Calcium phosphate glasses containing Sodium and Titania Calcium phosphate glasses containing Fluorine and Titania 1) Calcium phosphate glasses containing Potassium: Dias et al (2003) [12] conducted a study and prepared bioresorbable calcium phosphate glass-ceramics between the metaphosphate and pyrophosphate region based on the composition 45CaO-45P2O5-5K ­2 ­O-5MgO (Ca:P = 0.5). XRD results showed that addition of nucleating agents, K2O and MgO forms bioactive: ÃŽ ²-CPP and biodegradable phases: KCa(PO3)3, Ca4P6O19 as well as ÃŽ ²-Ca(PO3)2 which is considered to be non-toxic.[21] DTA results showed two crystallisation peaks, Tp at 627 °C and 739 °C and two melting temperatures, Tm at 773 °C and 896 °C which was thought to be due to the partial melting of the crystalline phases or residual glass matrix. The glass transition temperature, Tg was observed at 534 °C. FTIR results showed functional groups corresponding to metaphosphate and pyrophosphate, (PO3)- and (P2O7)4-. These results are in accordance with functional groups of the crystalline phases identified by XRD: ÃŽ ²-CPP, KCa(PO3)3, Ca4P6O19 and ÃŽ ²-Ca(PO3)2. Results from de gradation studies of these glass-ceramics confirmed that by controlling the overall composition of the O:P in the glass, glass ceramics with high degree of degradability can be obtained. The level of chemical degradation observed for these materials is well-above that reported in literature for bioactive ceramics that are clinically used, namely HA and TCP. It was therefore concluded that the incorporation of K2O in glass ceramics increases the solubility and also these calcium phosphate glass ceramics makes them potentially clinically helpful for promoting the regeneration of soft as well as hard connective tissue by allowing the degradability to be controlled. A study by Knowles et al (2001) [92] investigated the solubility and the effect of K2O in the glass-system based on the general composition: K ­2 ­O-Na2O-CaO-P2O5. The exchange of a mono or divalent ion with another of a similar charge was therefore investigated. The P2O5 and CaO content were fixed, at 45 mol% and the CaO content at 20, 24 or 28 mol% and the ratio of K2O to Na2O was varied from 0 to 25mol %. Results showed, firstly an increase in CaO content caused the solubility to decrease, as expected and confirmed from previous studies. [81,94] Secondly, for all CaO contents there was an increase in solubility, when K2O content was increased. [92] In a recent study by Marikani et al (2008), based on the same general composition, they demonstrated that the addition of K2O caused a decrease in both density (from 2.635 g cm-3 to 2.715 g cm -3 and microhardness measurements (from 257 to 335 HV) and hence weakens the structure. These findings are attributed to the replacement of l ighter cation (Na2O) by a heavier one (K2O). The ionic radius of potassium is larger than the ionic radius of sodium so, the addition of K2O has a larger disrupting effect on the structure and hence weakens the glass-network. The decrease of melting point with the addition of K2O content indicates that K2O increases network disruption by producing non-bridging oxygens. And the low value of Tg indicates that the glass samples are thermally unstable. Additionally, the elastic modulus, decreases when the concentration of K2O is increased, which implies the weakening of the overall bonding strength, as more cross linking is degraded. The increase of the internal friction and the decrease of the thermal expansion coefficient with the addition of the K2O content are due to the formation of non-bridging oxygen ions. The SEM micrographs of the glass samples recorded before immersion in SBF indicates the amorphous nature of the materials and when glasses were immersed in SBF solutions for 10 days, the glass-samples showed bioactivity. Although the addition of K2O to the ternary Na2O-CaO-P2O5 based system offers greater flexibility in terms of tailoring the solubility to suit potential biomedical applications, only little research has been conducted in using K2O in calcium phosphate glasses, probably because it has shown to increase network disruption which was confirmed by decrease in Tm, addition of K2O causes a decrease in density and microhardness measurements, it weakens overall bonding strength confirmed by a decrease in the elastic modulus, causing it to be less rigid as well as producing thermally unstable glasses which was confirmed by the low values of Tg. These mechanical properties are not desirable in the long run and due to it being less rigid, it would not withstand stress in biomedical applications and consequently result in failure. 2) Calcium phosphate glasses containing Magnesium: Research into calcium phosphate glasses which produce biocompatible and bioactive phases has generated a lot of interest. An attempt to induce ÃŽ ²-TCP was undertaken by Zhang et al (2000) on calcium phosphate glass-ceramics in the pyrophosphate region based on the composition 50CaO-40P2O5-7TiO2-1.5MgO-1.5Na2O (Ca:P molar ratio = 0.625). XRD results showed that the ÃŽ ²-TCP phase was not detected and the main crystalline phase precipitated was ÃŽ ²-CPP with smaller amounts of soluble Calcium titanophosphate, CaTi4(PO4)6 CTP, and Sodium titanophosphate, NaTi2(PO4)3. Kasuga et al (1998) reported a similar occurrence in the structure of glass-ceramics which contained TiO2 (wt 3 %). . SEM observations demonstrated light areas which were confirmed by EDS analysis to be ÃŽ ²-CPP, grey areas was thought to correspond to Na- containing phases and dark areas were composed of lower CaO contents compared to the other two areas and contained MgO and Na2O. These results were identical to Kasuga et als study (1999). The undetectable ÃŽ ²-TCP phase was possibly due to the low content of MgO and TiO2 added and the low Ca:P ratio of the glass. Although bioactive and biosoluble phases were precipitated in the glass-ceramic, no continuous apatite layer was formed even after 8 weeks of immersion in SBF solution. A study by Brauer et al (2007) observed the solubility of several phosphate glasses in the system P2O5-CaO-MgO-Na2O-TiO2. The glass compositions ranged from ultraphosphate glasses (with phosphate contents over 50 mol %) to polyphosphate glasses (containing 50 mol% P2O5 or less which are formed by phosphate chains or rings possessing different chain lengths) to invert glasses (pyrophosphate glasses- P2O5 concentrations of around 34 mol %.). Results showed that the phosphate glasses showed a uniform dissolution. No selective alkali leaching, which is known from silica based glasses, was observed. Also that the solubility of the glasses strongly depend on the glass-composition. The higher the phosphate content resulted in an increase in solubility; According to Vogel et al [104], this is due to the polymerisation of the phosphate chains and the Q1 end units being more susceptible to hydration and subsequent hydrolysis than Q2 middle groups. Also it was observed that the higher the conce ntration of Na2O resulted in an increase in solubility too due to the effect Na+ has on the glass structure. Addition of titanium oxide resulted in a decrease in both the solubility and the tendency of the glasses to crystallise by forming cross links between phosphate groups and titanium ions. Invert glasses showed a considerably smaller solubility than polyphosphate glasses and offer an alternative to polyphosphate glasses, since they are more stable to moisture attack. However, decreasing the P2O5 content makes glasses not only more stable to hydrolysis but also restricts the glass forming area. Hence, glasses in the pyrophosphate region show a larger tendency to crystallize than polyphosphate glasses [96]. However invert glasses in the system P2O5-CaO-MgO-Na2O showed that properties such as solubility and crystallization tendency can be controlled by adding small amounts of metal oxides [95]. Results of solubility experiments showed that the glass system investigated enabled adj ustment of solubility with only minor chemical changes. This ability to control the solubility is very promising for medical application where the coordination of implant degradation and bone formation are a key issue. A study by Dias et al (2005) studied the crystallisation of the glass-system: 37P2O5-45CaO-5MgO-13TiO2 (Ca:P=0.6)in the pyrophosphate and orthophosphate region, by using TiO2 as a nucleating agent and MgO as a network modifier. Results showed that they contained four different crystalline phases; two of them, ÃŽ ²-CPP and CTP are reported to be biocompatible and bioactive, respectively [88,97,98]. T